Welcome

about the blog.

Welcome to Okeanos blog, a place for my personal cetacean experiences, and updates about the captive orca population. Okeanos was originally created in 2009, but became neglected. In the summer of 2013, I started up Okeanos again to make it what you see before you now.
~ Profiles on all living captive orcas can be found on the bar on right.
~ Listings of the captive orcas birthdays can be found here.
~ A selection of significant events in the captive orca industry can be found here.
~ The names and locations of all captive orcas that have since passed away can be found here.
~ A family tree of the captive orcas can be found here.

about me.
At the age of 10 after a trip to Florida I became very interested in cetaceans, and complied profiles about every single species. My interest became further directed towards killer whales, and after a trip to Marineland Canada in August 2003, I created my own website named Friend of the Orcas. The website ran for a few years, having many versions and it's own domain at one point. When I hit my teenage years, I abandoned the website, but my love for killer whales didn't diminish and I still made sure to visit a park ever year. To date I have visited Marineland Canada x2 (2003, 2004), SeaWorld Florida x3 (1996, 2002, 2018), SeaWorld California x4 (1998, 2007, 2013, 2023), SeaWorld Texas x4 (2009, 2010x2, 2011), Six Flags Vallejo (2007), Loro Parque x 3 (2006, 2012, 2019), Marineland France x7 (2004x2, 2005, 2008, 2011, 2013, 2014), and Miami Seaquarium (2018).

Marineland France 2023 Trip Report

 1^st November 2023

I made it to Marineland and went straight to the orcas. I saw three in the showpool… I then saw Caio talking to a trainer and asked if someone was missing – they said Moana passed away a few weeks ago, nooo so sad L L. Anyway I spent the whole day at the orcas and met Caio’s friends – Helio, Justine, Oceane and Amyricke. They were really nice. For the show, Helio answered an orca quiz in my name for me to win the chance to meet the orcas at the glass, and it worked, omg!!! My name up on the screen lool. So in the show I got go down and meet Keijo at the glass yeyy. Got to do some hand signals and have a photo with him! Was kinda nerve-wracking in front of hundreds of people, and I wasn’t sure what the hand signs were lool. So cool though! After the show we watched the orcas from the backpool/lagoon viewing points. It’s improved a lot as a viewing point over the years! We then went back to the main show pool and watched Inouk, Wikie and Keijo until we were kicked out at closing time, n’aww. I said bye to everyone and got the train back to Nice.

 

2^nd November 2023

Spent the morning exploring Villefranche-sur-mer in the rain. Then got the trains to Nice and then Biot. Arrived at Marineland in time for the 2pm orca show – and found Caio and everyone. After the show, Mum and I got lunch and then walked around the rest of the park – saw the penguins, seals, sharks and dolphins. Loved the huge Stellar sea lions and this years South American fur seal pups were such cuties zooming around their pool! But my heartbroke when checking out the pools around the back of the orcas, and I saw Caio and the others having a private photo session with all the orcas. Noooo, I wish I had been part of that! So gutted. The last moments in the park, we watched the orcas in the backpools then said bye to everyone and left.

SeaWorld California Trip Report - April 2023

7^th April 2023

 I travelled to San Diego early this morning and headed to SeaWorld. I arrived and went straight to the orcas as the 12pm show was about to start. In the show was Orkid, Keet and Ulises. I must say, they have improved the educational content of the shows by tenfold! Much better than before. I then hung around the orcas pools. I went to the underwater viewing area where Corky, Ikaika and Shouka were. Ike and Shouka weren’t doing much, but Corky was doing upside down laps in front of the glass. They were then being used for the 1pm Dine With Shamu experience so they were active then. I went to watch the show pool, and Kalia and Makani were in there for the paid orca experience. Makani is so big now, crazy! He was just a bub when I saw him last. I went up onto the pre-show skywalk viewing platform and saw Keet, Ulises and Orkid from above. Then I went to watch the second show where Shouka, Kalia, Makani, Orkid, Keet and Ulises were all used at different times.

I then wondered around the rest of the park and saw the dolphins, seals, sea lions, penguins, belugas, walruses and otters.

Later, I went back to the underwater viewing area and Keet, Makani and Orkid were in there. Keet and Makani were kinda swimming around in mother and calf position, so people thought they were lol. Orkid was being antisocial and just hanging at the bottom of the pool.. Yah, so it was then my Dine With Shamu dinner. I got a seat at the glass, on Orkid’s side. She’s a pretty girl. I ate as much as I could as the buffet lol. But yeah, it was lovely seeing the whales so close. I stayed the whole time. Then I headed over to watch the final show where they used Shouka, Kalia, Ulises and finally saw Corky and Ikaika in the show, yaaay! Apparently Ikaika is the largest male – that’s crazy! I guess that’s the Tilikum genes! I then left the park and headed back to the hostel.

 

8^th April 2023

 I arrived at the park and made it for the 12pm show and sat in the front row in front of the slide out. I got a slight spray, not a soaking haha. In the show were Corky, Ikaika and Makani, then briefly at the end Kalia and Ulises. I then went for the Killer Whale Close Up experience. Wow, what a rip off, honestly. We got taken into the show pool stadium, where Kalian and Ulises were. We watched the trainers interact with them, whilst a trainer quietly spoke about them. Then us guests were split between each orca for photos. I had Ulises. He’s a cutey. But yeah, the whole experience was probably 20 mins or less, and cost $99, madness! I would have at least liked a photo with Kalia as well! I checked out the parts of the park I missed yesterday, such as the turtles and rays. Then hung around the Dine with Shamu pool, where Orkid, Shouka and Keet were. Orkid was laying upside down in the pool again. Later she was playing with the gate which seemed dangerous, and Makani entered the pool and was hanging around the gate too. I then got tired of the amount of people at the park and left pretty early.

Behavioural indicators of stress in dolphins

 Stress is wildly used as an indicator of negative welfare. There are two main types of stress: acute and chronic stress. Acute stress is often a short-term event which can have negative or positive physiological effects, whereas chronic stress has long-term, negative effects¹. Animals can either visibly display their stress, such as behavioural changes, or physiological parameters can indicate their levels of stress, such as changes in cortisol. Where it is not possible to gain physiological readings of animals, particularly wild animals, behavioural observations are the main source used. Therefore the behavioural indicators for recognising stress in dolphins are described as follows:
 
Respiration rate and chuffing
An increase in breathing rate is commonly used as an indicator of stress in farm animals, and as dolphins are mammals, a higher respiration rate could also mean that the dolphin is experiencing stress. However, Serres and Delfour (2019)² concluded that a change in breathing frequency does not indicate whether the stress is negative or positive, such as excitement, and that other physiological parameters should be measured. Although, as physiological parameters are not always accessible, noticing a change in a dolphins breathing rate is a good place to start. Furthermore, dolphins may exhale sharply and loudly known as “chuffing”, which is used to infer that the dolphin is bothered by something³.

Whistles
The dolphin’s whistle rate has been studied as a potential indicator of stress. During captive dolphin swim programs, an increased in whistle rate was found which Akiyama and Ohta (2007)⁴ suggested was due to stress. In a capture and release study, Esch et al (2009) also found that the whistle rate and number of loops were greater during brief capture-release events when compared to undisturbed conditions.  
 
Stereotypies
For most captive wild animals, the appearance of abnormal, repetitive behaviours cause a welfare concern. This has also been observed in captive dolphins, in the form of vomiting, head bobbing, circular swimming and biting on gates and bars⁵. However it is not fully understood how a stereotypical behaviour reflects an animals’ internal state. The behaviour may have arisen out of feeling a state of chronic stress, however the behaviour may also be a coping mechanism, and therefore performing the behaviour can lower the animals’ stress, as has been found in rhesus macaques⁶.  
 
Dive duration
An increase in the length of time that a dolphin dives for has been used to indicate stress in dolphins. Dolphins in areas of high vessel traffic were found to dive for longer⁷, likely as an avoidance tactic. Therefore the longer a dolphin is under the water, the more stress it is likely experiencing. A study on a solitary common dolphin in Scotland found that the dolphin dove for longer as the vessel passed by, compared to when there were no passing vessels in the area (Hurdle unpublished). Ocean noise can also be a stressor to dolphins, causing longer dives.
 
Increased swimming speed
Often seen in the wild, an abrupt change in a dolphin’s swimming speed and direction caused by vessels can be an indicator of stress. If the dolphin feels disturbed it will flee the area, whereas a dolphin that feels undisturbed will remain. Therefore it is essential that vessel users are mindful of how their boat behaviour affects dolphins.
 
Body slaps and aerial behaviours
Dolphins may slap the water, with either their head or tail as a sign of aggression. Dolphins have been observed tail slapping when drones are flown too close to the group⁸, therefore it is assumed the behaviour is delivered as a warning. This has also occurred when vessels are too close in proximity. An increased occurrence in breaches have also been observed, which may also indicate stress.
 

Slide-outs and strandings
Within captivity, dolphins may be seen “sliding out” onto dry land areas outside of shows and training sessions. This behaviour is often interpreted as play by the trainers, however it could be seen as a sign of stress that the dolphin is trying to get out of the water. In a video of a facility in Japan, a false killer whale slid over the tank glass and onto the concrete ground during a show⁹. This was obviously not a planned behaviour, and the trainers had to quickly act to get the animal back into the water. These captive instances could be the equivalent of wild cetaceans stranding on beaches. Cetaceans may strand for a variety of reasons, however the stress of intense ocean noise caused by naval activity has been known to cause fatal strandings of cetaceans¹⁰.
 
References
1. Esch HC, Sayigh LS, Blum JE and Wells RS 2009 Whistles as potential indicators of stress in bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus). Journal of Mammalogy 900(3): 638-650
2. Serres A and Delfour F 2019 Social behaviors modulate bottlenose dolphins’ (Tursiops truncatus) breathing rate. Animal Behaviour and Cognition 6(2): 127-140
3. https://www.bornfree.org.uk/storage/media/content/files/Publications/EU%20DOLPHINARIA%20REPORT.pdf
4. Akiyama J and Ohta M 2007 Increased number of whistles of bottlenose dolphins, Tursiops truncatus, arising from interaction with people. Journal of Veterinary Medical Science 69: 165-170
5. https://cetaceaninspiration.wordpress.com/2011/12/22/stereotypical-behavior-in-captive-whales-and-dolphins/#:~:text=Like%20many%20animals%20in%20captivity,%2C%20or%20abnormal%2C%20stereotypical%20behavior.&text=Some%20examples%20of%20stereotypy%20include,and%20bars%2C%20and%20tongue%20playing.
6. Pomerantz O, Paukner A and Terkel J 2012 Some stereotypic behaviors in rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) are correlated with both perseveration and the ability to cope with acute stressors. Behaviour Brain Research 230(1): 274-280
7. Ng SL and Leung S 2003 Behavioural response of Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin (Sousa chinensis) to vessel traffic. Marine Environmental Research 56: 555-567
8. Fettermann T, Fiori L, Bader M, Doshi A, Breen D, Stockin K and Bollard B 2019 Behaviour reactions of bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) to multirotor Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs). Scientific Reports 9: 8558
9. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wxzTyQillMQ
10. Parsons ECM 2017 Impacts of navy sonar on whales and dolphins: now beyond a smoking gun? Frontiers in Marine Science 13

The orcas of the UK

People of today’s generation will probably be shocked to hear that the UK used to hold captive orcas. However our parents’ generation may remember visiting them, such as my aunt who recalls seeing Winnie at Windsor Safari Park. Over a 23 year span (1968 to 1991), the UK held eight captive orcas in five different facilities around England.

The first orca to arrive was a young male named Cuddles. He arrived at Flamingo Land in 1968 from Seattle Marine Aquarium. He lived there for three years, before being transferred to Dudley Zoo where he died in 1974. Within his time at Flamingo Land, Cuddles' sperm was used to artificially inseminate the UK's second captive orca Calypso, however it was unsuccessful. Calypso’s resided briefly at Cleethorpes Zoo. Within the same year, 1970, Calypso was transferred out of the UK to Marineland France where she died the same year.

In 1970, the UK acquired its third orca, a male named Ramu 3. Ramu lived at Windsor Safari Park between 1970 and 1976. He was then transferred to SeaWorld California where he was renamed Winston.

Hoi Wai was a young female orca that arrived in 1977. Over two years within the UK she lived between Windsor Safari Park and Clacton Pier. Hoi Wai was transferred to Ocean Park in Hong Kong where she was renamed Suzie Wong. Whilst at Windsor Safari Park, she had a tank mate called Winnie, also known as Frya. Winnie spent her entire time within the UK at Windsor Safari Park. She was loaned to SeaWorld and left in 1991. She was the last orca remaining in the UK. However, upon her death at SeaWorld 10 years later, the autopsy revealed she had many foreign objects in her stomach, which she ate whilst she was in the UK.

Our final UK orcas touched down at Clacton Pier in 1981. A trio of boys, including an unnamed male who died after two months in captivity. Neptune survived for two years at the pier, whilst Nemo outlasted them. Nemo lived at the pier until 1985, however due to his growing size, he was transferred to the Windsor Safari Park. A year alongside Winnie, Nemo died at the Safari Park.

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Facilities

-Flamingo Land, North Yorkshire (1968 to 1971)

-Cleethorpes Zoo, North East Lincolnshire (1970)
-Windsor Safari Park, Berkshire (1970 to 1991)

-Dudley Zoo, West Midlands (1971 to 1974)

-Clacton Pier Dolphinarium, Essex (1978 to 1985)

The Orcas

-Cuddles - 1968 to 1971 Flamingo Land, 1971 to 1974 Dudley Zoo

-Calypso – 1969 Flamingo Land, 1970 Cleethorpes Zoo

-Winston - 1970 to 1976 Windsor Safari Park (Ramu)

-Hoi Wai - 1977 Windsor Safari Park, 1978 to 1979 Clacton Pier, 1979 Windsor Safari Park

-Winnie - 1977 to 1991 Windsor Safari Park (Frya)

-Unnamed – 1981 Clacton Pier

-Neptune – 1981 to 1983 Clacton Pier

-Nemo – 1981 to 1985 Clacton Pier, 1985 to 1986 Windsor Safari Park

Cetacean welfare issues

Animal welfare issues predominantly focus around animals that are under human care, such as farm, zoo, laboratory and companion animals. Wild animal welfare is often neglected, as it is viewed that they are not our responsibility in the same manner that animals under human care are^1,2. The view is held that we do not intervene on naturally occurring suffering, such as the predator-prey relationship. However, due to the continual degradation of the environment caused by anthropogenic interactions, it is felt that wild animal welfare is deserving of our attention¹. Furthermore, the welfare of wild cetaceans is severely understudied². Within the marine mammal research community, preference has been taken on population, behaviour or conservation studies. Very little research on cetaceans has been with an animal welfare focus. Therefore I will summarise each welfare issue that is affecting wild cetaceans currently.

Ocean noise³

Cetaceans use sound for navigation, communication, hunting, socialising and avoiding predators. However the oceans are being filled with increased anthropogenic sounds, such as drilling, navy activity and shipping. Cetaceans are very sensitive to sound, and the increased noise levels can be very stressful and even painful for them. In the Bahamas in 2000, 17 Curvier’s beaked whales were found stranded, with bleeding eyes and ears, after a sonar trial by the US Navy. Ocean noise is a serious welfare issue that has worsened over the years as people have developed high tec equipment. But hopefully with our ingenuity, we can lower the sound of our activities.

Capture

Cetaceans have been captured, for either captivity, research or rescue purposes. Regardless of the motive behind it, captures are incredibly stressful on cetaceans. The removal of them from their natural environment, even if only temporarily, is a very traumatic experience. Even if the animal is not intended to be harmed, the experience itself can prove fatal. Captured animals can experience capture myopathy which is a stress-induced muscle degenerative condition⁴, caused by handling from humans. It is not uncommon for animals that have been handled to be found dead hours, days or weeks later. The least amount of contact we have cetaceans, the better they will fare.

Captivity⁵

Cetaceans do not fare well in captivity. The most common species in captivity are bottlenose dolphins, belugas and orcas. Many species are far too sensitive to captivity, which is why they are not kept. However dolphins, belugas and orcas still experience compromised welfare, despite being hardier than other species. Captive cetaceans experience social stress, poor dental health, stereotypies, sun burn, diseases and injuries. Some cetaceans kept alone will also experience social deprivation, which will adversely affect highly social species.

Hunting/whaling

Whaling is a historical welfare issue that fortunately has dramatically reduced over the years. Many whale species were on the brink of extinction due to being overhunted. By the late 1980s most countries had ended whaling. However a few countries continue to hunt cetaceans. The most famous hunt in Taiji, Japan, known as drive hunting is considered extremely brutal. Cetaceans are herded by boats into a cove, which is then netted off. The animals are extremely panicked. Some animals are selected for captivity or released. The ones picked for meat consumption are killed by having a metal pin driven into their neck⁶. Many are rough handled and experience broken beaks or appendages.

PCB contamination⁷

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were a harmful chemical used in many industries. They have been banned for decades but still leak into the ocean. Through food chain accumulation, killer whales have become the most contaminated cetacean. Samples from their blubber have shockingly high levels in them, which was the case for Lulu, a deceased member of the West Coast orca community that only has 8 members left. This population has not produced a calf in the 28 years that is has been studied, likely due to the high levels of PCB. Orcas around Gibraltar, Japan, Brazil and the north-east Pacific are also in danger.

Ship strike/collision

In the last 28 years, shipping traffic has increased exponentially. There are more vessels on the water, which are increasing in size and speed⁸. Many of the larger whales are being fatally struck by vessels, due to being unable to get out of the way. Even if not killed instantly, they will suffer from severe injuries that eventually claim them. Small cetaceans are faster, and therefore can elude the large vessels easier, but still face collisions with smaller vessels. Dolphins can be struck by propellers, sometimes surviving with injury, other times not. For cetaceans to have a chance, vessels need to reduce their speed, however this is not in the interest of the shipping companies, which makes it a difficult issue to tackle.

Stranding

When a cetacean is on land, this is never a good sign. Often stranding is an indicator of poor health, or healthy individuals can get accidently stuck. Once on land, gravity can cause cetaceans internal organs to be crushed by their body weight, as they no longer have the water to support their large size. Mass strandings are incredibly concerning, as its very difficult to rescue all individuals. The majority die on land, and any re-floated individuals often re-strand themselves. The species that is most prone to mass strandings are pilot whales where hundreds may die in a single event.

Feeding

In Australia, 4 legal feeding sites exist. Two in Western Australia (Bunbury and Monkey Mia) and two in Queensland (Tin Can Bay and Moreton Island). These places have permits to hand-feed wild dolphins, however any other feeding outside of these permits is illegal. Studies on unregulated feeding in Monkey Mia found that calves of mothers who were fed had a higher mortality. Mothers were less invested in rearing their young, compared with mothers who did not take fish from people. Since the findings, tighter regulations were put in place. However, these feeding sites may lead people to think it is acceptable to feed cetaceans from their own recreational vessels. Dolphins in Bunbury are often observed as “begging” at recreational vessels. Without the supervision, it is unknown exactly what these dolphins are being fed.

Entanglement/plastic pollution

Over the last few years, it has grown increasingly apparent how devastating plastic is. Our seas are being choked, therefore, marine animals are suffering as they come into contact with it. Large whales are getting entangled in fishing gear, which can cause deep lacerations and infections or starvation, and drowning. Over 300,000 cetaceans are estimated to die annually from entanglement⁹. Plastic ingestion is also an increasing problem. A sperm whale that washed up in Scotland was found with 220lbs of debris inside it¹⁰. Although this case was extraordinarily large, it is a growing finding that many washed up whales are consuming plastic.

Bycatch

Another historical welfare issue. Cetaceans have been caught as bycatch for a long time. Although not intended to be caught, the large nets meant to catch fish also entrap cetaceans, particularly dolphins and porpoises. The world’s most endangered cetacean, the Vaquita, is close to extinction due to bycatch. In the Gulf of California, totoaba are being illegally harvested, and the Vaquita are getting caught in the gillnets¹¹. With an estimated 19 individuals remaining, it is likely the Vaquita will vanish, like the Baiji, as a result of humans.

Research methods

A rarely discussed welfare issue, can be at the hands of researchers themselves. For population or genetic studies, cetaceans are often biopsied. The cetaceans are surprised and scared when struck by the biopsy dart. Drones are a new research tool, used to get closer observations or samples of cetaceans. It is not yet fully understood how much effect drones can have on cetaceans, however getting too close may cause them alarm.

Tourism

Seeing wild cetaceans is a truly magical experience. If going slowly and quietly, it is possible to enjoy seeing cetaceans behave naturally. However, irresponsible boat users can be highly disturbing to cetaceans. Getting too close or travelling too fast can cause cetaceans to flee. In some parts of the world, the whale watching industry is not well regulated, and cetaceans are often crowded or having their paths cut across. Some companies also offer ‘swim with’ wild cetacean programs, where boats will try to place guests in the water with the cetaceans. The interactions may be forced, therefore disturbing the cetaceans.

Prey depletion

The most famous case of prey depletion is that of Chinook salmon in the North Pacific. For the Southern Resident Killer whales, where 78% of their diet is made up from chinook salmon¹², it is highly concerning that salmon stocks are dwindling. Other species facing prey depletion include humpback whales, harbour porpoises, common dolphins, Franciscanas and Ganges river dolphins. Prey depletion is a welfare concern as it leads to starvation and loss of body condition.

Solitary-sociableness¹³

There are cases of dolphins that are solitary and taken up residency in human populated coastal areas. They may become named by locals and approached. Interactions with humans put both the dolphin and people at risk. Some of the welfare concerns for solitary-sociable dolphins include disturbance, inappropriate touching and riding, propeller strikes and illegal provisioning. Solitary-sociable dolphins are more vulnerable as they lose their wariness of people, therefore are more at risk of harm.

References

1/ Kirkwood JK, Sainsbury AW and Bennett PM 1994 The welfare of free-living wild animals: methods of assessment. Animal Welfare 3: 257-273

2/ Clegg ILK and Butterworth A 2017 Marine mammal welfare: Human induced change in the marine environment and its impacts on marine mammal welfare. Cham, Switzerland: Springer Nature

3/ https://awionline.org/content/ocean-noise

4/ https://www.pgc.pa.gov/Wildlife/Wildlife-RelatedDiseases/Pages/CaptureMyopathy.aspx

5/ https://okeanos-blogging.blogspot.com/2020/04/the-welfare-issues-of-killer-whales-in.html

6/ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiji_dolphin_drive_hunt#Method_of_slaughter

7/ https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/sep/27/orca-apocalypse-half-of-killer-whales-doomed-to-die-from-pollution

8/ https://wwf.panda.org/knowledge_hub/endangered_species/cetaceans/threats/shipping/

9/ https://iwc.int/entanglement

10/ https://www.nytimes.com/2019/12/02/world/europe/harris-beached-whale.html

11/ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaquita

12/ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_resident_killer_whales

13/ https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fvets.2018.00331/full

Orca Fact file

Infraorder: Cetacea

Parvorder: Odontoceti

Family: Delphinidae

Species: Orcinus orca

Common name: Killer whale, orca, orca whale, blackfish, Grampus, whale killer (historical)

Distribution: All oceans. Key places to see wild orcas include: Norway, Iceland, Scotland, Gibraltar, East Russia, South Africa, Argentina, SW Australia, New Zealand, West Canada, West USA, India, Sri Lanka, Japan, and Antarctica

Length: (Average) Males: 7-8m, females: 6m

Weight: (Average) Males: 3,600 - 5,500kg, females: 1,350 - 3,650kg

Longevity: Male (Average) Captivity: 10yrs/ Wild: 30-50yrs (Max.) Captivity: 43yrs / Wild: 60-70yrs // Female (Average) Captivity: 12yrs / Wild: 50yrs (Max.) Captivity: 56yrs / Wild: 80-100yrs

Sexual maturity: 10-15 yrs

Gestation: 17 months

Population:  Globally: 50,000 approximately // Southern Resident: 72 (J Pod: 22, K Pod: 17, L Pod: 32) / West Coast Community (UK): 8 (as of May 2020)

Conservation status: Data deficient

Eco-types

Orcas come in a wide range of shapes, colours and sizes. They have been divided into “ecotypes” however some are questioning whether they should be classified as different species.

Northern Hemisphere:

North Pacific:

(1) Residents: The most well-known orcas. Often have open saddle patches. Fish eaters.

(2) Transients/Biggs: Large. Travels in small groups. Quieter. Mammal eaters.

(3) Offshores: Found 24-40km offshore. Travel in large groups. Feeds on sharks. Worn teeth.

North Atlantic:

(4) Type 1: Found off Norway. Worn teeth.

(5) Type 2: Sloping eye patches. Mammal eaters.

Southern Hemisphere:

(6) Antarctic Type A: Mammal eaters.

(7) Pack Ice Large Type B: Very large eyepatches. Yellowish tinge. Mammal eaters.

(8) Gerlache Small Type B: Large eye patches. Yellowish tinge to greyish body. Penguin eaters.

(9) Ross Sea Type C: Narrow, slanted eye patches. Yellowish tinge to grey body. Fish eaters.

(10) Subantarctic Type D: Bulkier head shape, with tiny eye patches. Fish eaters.

Family

Orcas are highly complex and social beings. Depending on the eco-type, orcas travel in various group sizes. However, what is known about orca society is that orcas are matriarchal. Groups are made up of an adult female and her offspring and grandchildren. Sons will stay with their mothers all of their lives, only leaving to mate with other pods before returning. Male orcas do not rear their own offspring, but will help raise their siblings, nieces, nephews and cousins. Orcas are also one of the few animals that live past menopausal age. Female orcas continue into their ‘granny years’ to assist with rearing the younger generations. Orcas also have their own dialects, perhaps to distinguish non-related members to assist in avoiding inbreeding.

Prey

Again, depending on the ecotype, the prey of orcas differs. Some orcas are fish-only eaters. Others are mammal eaters. They may prey on seals and sea lions. Around Argentina, orcas will beach themselves to grab Patagonian sea lion pups from shore. In Antarctica, orcas will work together to knock seals off ice flows. Certain ecotypes in Antarctica feed on penguins as well. Alternatively, many orcas will hunt fellow cetaceans. Famous footage exists of orca pods hunting down large whale mother and calves. With their cooperation, they can attack animals much larger than themselves. This is what affirms the orca as the top predator in the ocean. The sailors that observed the mammal eating orcas coined the original name “whale killers”, which later got reversed to killer whales.

Threats

Some populations of orcas are doing well, however in some parts of the world, the populations are at serious risk of disappearing. For example, the West Coast Community around the UK, only have 8 members left. Lulu was a member of the West Coast Community, and was found dead in 2016 with shocking levels of PCB pollution. The levels of pollution found in Lulu possibly reflect the levels in the remaining pod members, and may explain why the pod has not produced a calf in the 28 years that it has been studied.

The Southern Residents are also a well-known population that is not faring well. This is likely due to their choice of prey, the Chinook salmon, which is heavily depleted. Recent observations of some of the members show them to be very thin and in ill health. With their prey source in decline, the orcas are struggling.

Plastic pollution is a global problem for all ocean creatures. In January 2020, a juvenile male orca was found washed up in England with a large fragment of plastic in its stomach. A baby orca was found playing with a plastic bag in the Pacific Northwest in 2013. Many cetacean species get entangled in fishing gear, and it can almost be certain that orcas have experienced this too.

Though less of a threat now, orcas have been exposed to commercial hunting. The earliest known records were in the 18^th century in Japan. They have been less targeted than the larger whales, but have still been victims of whaling. Before orcas were taken into captivity, they were largely feared and would be killed out of spite.

In not necessarily a lethal manner, orca populations have been under threat of being captured for captivity. The North Pacific population had been severely targeted and then the Icelandic populations. For several decades, orcas breathed a sigh of relief as it seemed no more wild orcas were being taken, but then captures resumed in 2012 in Russia. Orcas experience stress of their family units being broken up, and some unintentionally drown in the fishing nets.

A final ocean threat that orcas experience are noise and vessel disturbance. Whale watching companies may unintentionally harass orcas, as people wish to see them in the wild. Underwater nose from shipping, drilling and other human activities may be of significant disturbance to the orcas.

The welfare issues of killer whales in captivity

The first killer whale captured was in 1961. She was a female named Wanda, and lived for only two days at Marineland of the Pacific, in California¹. To date there are approximately 59 orcas in captivity², however the exact figure is not known due to the lack of information on the orcas held in Russia and China. Over the course of almost 60 years, 169 orcas have sadly lost their lives in captivity¹. In the early years of the industry, the orcas in captivity had a short life span (on average 5 years), due to a lack of husbandry understanding. The most common cause of death in captivity thus far has been pneumonia¹, making up a third of deaths. The captivity industry has been heavily opposed, particularly after the release of Blackfish (2013). Many ethical reasons for the opposition of captivity include the confinement in small tanks, their broken up family units (both in the wild and in captivity) and their reduced life spans³. The welfare of captive orcas is also under question, the main issues being discussed below.

Stereotypies

Abnormal repetitive behaviours, also known as stereotypies, are often regarded as an indicator of poor welfare⁴. Stereotypies are poorly understand in cetaceans, however circular swimming is often regarded as a stereotypical behaviour⁵, in the same way as pacing in terrestrial animals. Other stereotypies observed in captive orcas include: vomiting, head bobbing, comatose-like states, self-mutilation, and tongue playing⁶. Many of the orcas have also been observed as repetitively beaching themselves on the slide-out outside of performance times, which I have personally observed Skyla doing at Loro Parque in 2012. One of the more concerning abnormal behaviours, which can affect their physical health is biting on the bars, gates, or tank walls. The Loro Parque orcas, when they first arrived, were constantly stripping the paint off the tank walls and ingesting it. This behaviour leads onto the next welfare issue that captive orcas face.

Dental health

Although primarily a health issue this could also be considered a welfare issue. As the orcas bite on the concrete walls of their tanks, they wear down their teeth. Very few orcas in captivity have a full set of healthy teeth. As the teeth are worn down, the pup cavities become exposed. The trainers then have to intervene by either drilling their teeth or flushing the teeth to prevent infections⁷. These procedures must be very stressful for the orcas.  

Sun burn

This is an unusual welfare issue that the orcas encounter. As the captive orcas spend most of their life at the surface, they are more exposed to the sun’s UV rays than their wild counterparts. As a result, trainers must apply black zinc oxide as a sunscreen to the orcas, which is not necessary in the wild. Many of the SeaWorld orcas are in states that receive a lot of sun, and the stadiums lack appropriate shade to protect the orcas.

Disease/infections

Diseases and infections are of course a natural part of life. Orcas in the wild will also face these issues too. However, captivity has exposed some orcas to conditions that they may not face in the wild. Two male orcas have died in captivity as a result of disease transmission by mosquitoes. Kanduke* contracted St.Louis encephalitis virus in SeaWorld Orlando and Taku* died of West Nile Virus at SeaWorld San Antonio⁸. Kasatka* was also euthanized by vets after suffering from a type of bacterial pneumonia, which caused many unpleasant lesions on her skin⁹.

Injuries

Along with poor health caused by disease and infections, captive orcas also experience injuries as a result of their confinement. Splash*, was a male orca at SeaWorld San Diego, who received a jaw injury after having a seizure and smashing his lower jaw on a metal gate. He didn’t die as a result of this injury, however he had to have all of his bottom teeth removed and could never close it properly again¹⁰. Nakai also received a horrific injury to his lower jaw in 2012. Nakai had a massive open wound that went down to the bone. SeaWorld tried to pretend the injury was caused by Nakai catching himself on a gate, however it is possible it was the result of an altercation between a tank mate, as potential bite marks can be observed in photographs¹¹. Fortunately Nakai recovered from this.

Social stress

Linking with Nakai’s injury, which was caused by an altercation, social stress is a prominent issue in captivity. The orcas are placed into unnatural groups. You get orcas from different ocean’s kept together, who naturally feed on different diets, and then experience family separations as orcas are transferred between parks. The orcas of Loro Parque were a key example of an unnatural grouping as Keto (aged 10), Tekoa (aged 5), Kohana (aged 3) and Skyla (aged 2) were transported there. The group did not have an adult female present to keep them in line, which goes against an orcas natural matriarchal society¹². As a result, the group is very dysfunctional. Social stress can lead to orcas bullying each other, and the bullied orca is unable to escape as they would in the wild. Many captive orcas can be seen with deep rake marks.

Solitary confinement
Sadly, there are currently three orcas in captivity that live without another orca companion - Lolita at Miami Seaqurium, Kshamenk at Mundo Marino and Kiska at Marineland Canada. Kiska is the most isolated of all, as she doesn't have any form of tank mate. Lolita and Kshamenk do in fact live with dolphin companions. Lolita has shockingly spent the last 40 years alone, whereas Kshamenk has been without a partner for 20 years and Kiska for almost 9 years. For a social species, this isolation must be incredibly lonely. It is a wonder how these individuals have lasted as long as they have, particularly Lolita. 

Welfare improvements

Although I don’t have the answers to easing all of the above listed welfare problems, I have done some thinking on potential welfare improvements. For example, for the orcas that live alone (Lolita, Kiska and Kshamenk), I think feeding them live fish would be a good enrichment. I initially thought about it being used for all orcas, but was unsure as to whether live fish for multiple orcas may cause aggression problems if they fought over the food, and that’s why I thought it would be best suited for solitary orcas. Alternatively, live fish could still be fed to orcas in groups, but the orcas are sectioned off from each other (as can be done at Marineland France).

I also read an article by Law and Kitchener 2016¹³ (Law was my lecturer at Glasgow University), and they had suggested several environmental enrichment options for captive orcas. Law had visited SeaWorld Orlando, and created these ideas, however when I visited Orlando in 2018, I never saw any of his suggestions in place. He said this could be due to the higher up people, rather than the trainers, not willing to invest in the complex enrichment for the orcas. However, if the higher ups could be convinced, these enrichment devices could hopefully be applied to improve the welfare of the orcas.

In terms of performing, I do not believe that making orcas perform entirely reduces their welfare. As many orcas are inactive at the surface the majority of their day, shows are a good change of pace. However some alterations could be to remove the most unnatural tricks (like using the slideout) and the stadium music could be changed. The music is often loud and blaring for the auditions, and so the music could be changed to be more naturalistic, calmer, ocean sounds so as not to disturb the orcas.

For the orcas that live alone, I am uncertain as how this should be addressed. The most obvious answer would be to move them to parks that have other orcas. However, having spent so long alone, entering a new social group could be incredibly stressful. The orcas that live with others aren't necessarily happier, because social hierarchies can cause conflict, and having the addition of new members can disturb the structure. For Lolita and Kshamenk who have managed this long, maybe keeping things as they are is the best solution, however Kiska's complete isolation really needs to be changed.

Regardless of your views on captivity, we still may have orcas for another 30 years, whilst this current generation dies out. Therefore it is important, that their welfare needs are met as best as possible, so that they can live out the remainder of their lives without further stress and illness.

References

1/ https://inherentlywild.co.uk/deceased-orcas/

2/ https://inherentlywild.co.uk/captive-orcas/

3/ https://www.seaworldofhurt.com/features/8-reasons-orcas-dont-belong-seaworld/

4/ Broom DM 1991 Animal welfare: concepts and measurement. Journal of Animal Science 69: 4167-4175

5/https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Fabienne_Delfour/publication/316855744_Applying_welfare_science_to_bottlenose_dolphins_Tursiops_truncatus/links/59143d500f7e9b70f49aac5d/Applying-welfare-science-to-bottlenose-dolphins-Tursiops-truncatus.pdf

6/ https://cetaceaninspiration.wordpress.com/2011/12/22/stereotypical-behavior-in-captive-whales-and-dolphins/

7/ https://www.seaworldofhurt.com/study-tooth-damage-captive-orcas/

8/ http://www.oers.ca/journal/volume5/issue2/caseReport_vol5iss2.pdf

9/ https://www.thedodo.com/in-the-wild/seaworld-kasatka-chin-lesions

10/ http://www.orcaaware.org/splash.html

11/ https://www.peta.org/blog/orca-badly-hurt-seaworld-clash/

12/ https://wildwhales.org/speciesid/whales/killer-whale/

13/ https://eprints.gla.ac.uk/144829/1/144829.pdf

My view on orcas in captivity - updated

So I’ve decided to once again reflect on my view on the keeping of orcas in captivity. And once again, I don’t feel overly black and white on the matter. I don’t feel that I have a strong opinion either way. Over half my life I have been following the captive orca industry, and I feel a connection to these individuals that I have come to know. When I watched Blackfish for the first time back in 2013, I sat there feeling very uncomfortable, because everything they highlighted I already knew about, and I still hadn’t been swayed to an anti-captivity opinion (which obviously the movie wanted to make you feel). As the public opposition to the captive industry grew, I’ve almost felt as if I have had to hide the fact that I still want to see captive orcas. I’ve been labelled a hypocrite for studying animal welfare yet not being anti-captivity. It is actually an ambition of mine to do a world tour of every park around the world that has orcas, and I want to do this to honour my 11 year old self who gained this unique interest. I hope to do this over a few months in perhaps 2023, once I have saved enough money.

But my point is, just because I want to see orcas in captivity, does not mean I am pro-captivity. The welfare issues that orcas suffer from mean that captive enclosures are not suitable for them. I disagree with the artificial social groupings, and inability for the orcas to escape each other, which can lead to heightened aggression. I’ve seen the rake marks on orcas, even on 4 day old Athena (back in 2004), which may not be so prevalent in wild populations. Fortunately the Western parks seem to have stopped transferring their orcas around (the last orca being transferred between parks was Shouka in August 2012 to SeaWorld San Diego)[1], and separating mothers and calves, which may have been a result of The Blackfish Effect. It’s also very depressing when visiting the parks and to see many of them floating at the surface so lifelessly (which I remember very well Keet being like this). It’s as if they are completely disengaged from each other and their surroundings. I’m very pleased that SeaWorld announced this would be their last generations of orcas in 2016 [2], and it seems to be the case for the other Western parks too (except for Loro Parque who gained baby Ula in September 2018).

However, I am not entirely sold on the sea pen proposal anymore. After doing some reading, I actually found it very interesting that sea pens may not be the best option after all. Ocean noise is actually a serious problem for wild cetaceans (and has caused many cetaceans to strand and die)[3], and therefore being in a sea pen they may be exposed to such uncontrollable noises. There is also the risk of people cutting the sea pens and releasing the orcas into the wild (many of which, the captive-born ones, probably won’t be able to survive for too long). It is also possible that plastic and other debris may get inside the sea pen. The maintenance of sea pens is actually seemingly very complex, with different challenges to captive enclosures. The financial cost of transferring every captive orca into a sea pen would also be incredibly high. The cost to rehabilitate Keiko in Iceland, was supposedly $20 million [34]. Granted, this was a rehabilitation effort, whereas the aim of the relocating captive orcas into sea pens isn’t to release them, this does still show that it would be far from inexpensive. Cost aside, I also don’t even think the parks will surrender their orcas to this project – activists have been campaigning for Lolita to be moved from the Miami Seaquarium for decades, and have yet to have any success, therefore I can’t see the parks will give up their orcas for this cause.

Therefore, I think the most realistic option is to just let this remaining generation of orcas live out the rest of their lives in captivity. And whilst they must remain in captivity, they will be under the care of trainers who genuinely do love the orcas and want what’s best for them. Trainers are not bad people at all. I’m still indecisive on whether orcas should perform or not. As said above, I have seen orcas be very inactive in-between shows, therefore I don’t think that shows are entirely bad, as they do offer a change of pace for the orcas. However some of the unnatural tricks could definitely be phased out, such as making orcas “break-spin” on the slide outs.

As I’ve said in my 2015 post, I am very concerned about the growing orca industry in the East. I do not support orcas being taken from the wild. I am also concerned about the welfare issues that the orcas may face in these countries (as I have seen first-hand poor welfare conditions for bears in China). This is going to be a difficult matter to tackle. Fortunately there was mass public outcry at the captures of the orcas and belugas being held in the “Whale Jail” in Russia in 2018/2019, which led to their release [5]. Therefore, hopefully it is less likely that any further wild captures will go ahead, as the world is now watching. But as the captive orca industry in the East is in its early stages, it may take a while for them to reach the point that we are at now in the West.

I’m sure within my lifetime I will see the end of the captive orca industry in its entirety, which is the best outcome for the orcas welfare. However, whilst I still have the chance, I do want to take advantage of the possibility of seeing the captive orcas I have come to know, before it becomes a thing of the past…

References

[1] https://www.nbcsandiego.com/news/local/seaworld-san-diego-whale-arrival-lindbergh-field-vallejo-shouka/1931996/

[2] https://edition.cnn.com/2016/03/17/us/seaworld-last-generation-of-orcas/index.html

[3] https://awionline.org/content/ocean-noise

[4] https://www.seattletimes.com/seattle-news/the-20m-lessons-of-freeing-keiko-the-whale/

[5] https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/2019/06/russia-moves-orcas-and-belugas-from-whale-jail/

A brief history of UK dolphinariums

The holding of cetaceans (whales, dolphins and porpoises) in captivity dates back to the 1800s. The first cetaceans held in captivity were a pair of belugas, captured in Canada in 1861, and held in PT Barnum’s American Museum in New York [1]. In total he took nine belugas into captivity, but due to being unable to keep them alive for too long, he eventually stopped taking belugas by 1865 [1]. The industry gained momentum in the 1960s, due to the movie and TV show Flipper [2]. Since then, cetaceans have been held in captivity on every continent (except for Antarctica).

The UK’s first captive cetaceans were harbour porpoises held at the Brighton Aquarium as early as 1874 [3]. A female beluga whale also survived for only four days at the Westminster Aquarium in 1877 [4]. The following year, another beluga replaced the one at Westminster Aquarium, and an additional two were sent to Manchester and Blackpool, supposedly supplied by PT Burnam [5].

As with the global industry, the UK dolphinarium industry took off from the 1960s. The first purpose built dolphinarium was at Flamingo Land in Yorkshire in 1963 [6]. Over a 30 year period, more than 30 dolphinariums and travelling shows existed in the UK, housing approximately 300 dolphins [7]. Some of the facilities were only seasonal shows, whereas the majority were permanent fixtures. Of the species kept, the most popular were bottlenose dolphins, but the UK also held 8 orcas, and belugas and pilot whales temporarily. For a full list of the facilities where the dolphins were held, see below.

The conditions that the UK’s captive cetaceans were kept in were extremely inadequate, due to a lack of regulation. Many were held in swimming pools meant for people or in indoor facilities with no natural light. It wasn’t until 1984 that the Zoo Licensing Act came into place, which enforced some husbandry standards. However, after a review of UK dolphinariums it was deemed that many facilities were not keeping dolphins in appropriate conditions. A report titled ‘A Review of Dolphinaria’ by Klinowska and Brown concluded that their recommendations for holding cetaceans in captivity, such as increasing the pool size, should be implemented no later than 1993 [6].

For many years, the keeping of cetaceans in captivity was fiercely opposed, which in 1991 sparked the project Into The Blue. Supported by the Born Free Foundation and World Society of Protection of Animals, the group campaigned to close the remaining dolphinariums in the UK and also release a select few dolphins. The chosen candidates were Rocky from Marineland Morecambe, and Missie and Silver from Brighton Aquarium. They were transferred to a rehabilitation pen in the Caribbean in early 1991, and then released from the West Caicos Island in September 1991 [6].

After the phasing out of dolphinariums, the final dolphins housed in the UK at Flamingo Land were sent to a facility in Europe in 1993 [6]. There has never been any cetaceans in captivity in the UK since then.

Currently, under UK law it is still legal to house cetaceans in captivity. However, the requirements to house them have been set to such a high standard, that no facility has been willing to implement them, and therefore, will not hold cetaceans.

List of UK dolphinariums

* = seasonal show / ** = held orcas

60s

+ Blackpool Dolphinarium (Blackpool, England) - 1969*

70s

+ Gwrych Castle (Abergele, Wales) - 1970*

+ Durley Chine (Bournemouth, England) – 1970*

+ Weymouth Dolphinarium (Weymouth, England) - 1971*

+ Battersea Park Dolphinarium (London, England) - 1971 - 1973

+ London Dolphinarium (London, England) - 1971 – 1973

+ Southsea Dolphinarium (Portsmouth, England) - 1973*

+ Cleethorpes Marineland & Zoo (Cleethorpes, England) - 1966 - 1974** (Calypso)

+ Porthcawl Dolphinarium (Porthcawl, Wales) - 1971 - 1974

+ Dudley Zoo (Dudley, England) - 1971 - 1974** (Cuddles)

+ South Elmsall Animal Training School And Dolphinarium (South Elmsall, England) - 1972 - 1974

+ Rhyl Dolphinarium (Rhyl, Wales) - 1972 - 1974

+ Brean Down Dolphinarium (Brean Down, England) - 1974*

+ Southend Dolphinarium (Southend-on-Sea, England) - 1970 - 1975

+ Skegness Dolphinarium (Skegness, England) - 1972 - 1975

+ Coventry Zoo Dolphinarium (Coventry, England) - 1972 - 1975

+ Ocean Park (Sunderland, England) - 1973 - 1975

+ Royalty Folies (London, England) - 1974*

+ Sandown Dolphinarium (Isle Of Wight, England) - 1974 - 1975

+ West Midlands Safari Park Dolphinarium (Kidderminster, England) - 1975*

+ Queen’s Motel Dolphinarium (Margate, England) - 1969 - 1977

80s

+ Woburn Safari Park Dolphinarium (Woburn, England) - 1973 - 1983

+ Scarborough Marineland and Zoo (Scarborough, England) - 1969 - 1984

+ Blair Drummond Safari Park Dolphinarium (Stirling, Scotland) - 1974 - 1984

+ Clacton Pier Dolphinarium (Clacton-on-Sea, England) - 1971 - 1985** (Unnamed, Suzi Wong/Hoi Wai, Neptune, Nemo)

+ Knowsley Safari Park Dolphinarium (Knowsley, England) - 1972 - 1985

+ Whipsnade Zoo (Whipsnade, England) - 1972 - 1988

90s

+ Marineland (Morecambe, England) - 1964 - 1990

+ Brighton Aquarium and Dolphinarium (Brighton, England) - 1968 - 1990

+ Windsor Safari Park (Windsor, England) - 1970 - 1992** (Ramu 3/Winston, Suzi Wong/Hoi Wai, Winnie, Nemo)

+ Flamingo Land (Kirby, England) - 1963 - 1993** (Cuddles)

References

[1] https://www.historians.org/publications-and-directories/perspectives-on-history/april-2018/barnums-whales-the-showman-and-the-forging-of-modern-animal-captivity

[2] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolphinarium

[3] https://teamcetaceans.tumblr.com/post/116113755968/brighton-aquarium-uk-and-cetaceans-the

[4] https://seahistory.org/sea-history-for-kids/beluga-whale/

[5] https://www.zoochat.com/community/threads/royal-aquarium-westminster.222241/

[6] http://ukdolphinaria.blogspot.com/p/welcome-to-uk-dolphinaria-archieve.html

[7] https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-35832175